rm-lec-4

RESEARCH DESIGN

INTRODUCTION

This is where the actual research process begins; with certain questions like, 'Where do I begin', and 'What do I do next?', or better, 'What is the first step towards doing research?', and then 'What follows right after that?’ The first step toward doing research is to develop a plan that will present a summary of its main elements: what will be studied and how, when and where the research will take place; then how it will be executed; and, finally, how the data will be analyzed and published.

1          THE RESEARCH PROCESS

Methodology determines the manner in which research would be conducted. Qualitative and quantitative researchers conduct their research in different ways. All researchers, despite their differences, follow the same basic path of research. The five basic criteria of the research process are:

·         Research is conducted in the form of steps, guiding the researcher from the beginning to the end of the inquiry.

·         These steps are: first, the choice of the research topic and methodology; second, the methodological construction of the topic; third, sampling fourth, data collection; fifth, data analysis and interpretation; and sixth, reporting.

·         Quantitative researchers move from step to step progressively, ensuring that each step is fully completed before they move to the next. Qualitative researchers are more flexible about this.

·         The design of the research model is constructed before the start of the research, although in certain contexts flexibility on this is also accepted.

·         There is a degree of order in the process of moving from step to step, varying according to the underlying paradigm.

Steps of the research design
Step 1	Topic and methodology	WHAT is the research topic and which methodology will be employed?
Step 2	Methodological construction of the topic	HOW will the research topic be addressed in this study?
Step 3	Sampling procedures	WHERE and WHEN will the topic be studied, and WHO are the subject?
Step 4	Data collection	WHERE will the subject be found and HOW will the data be gathered?
Step 5	Data analysis and interpretation	HOW will the data be processed and in WHAT way will they be interpreted?
Step 6	Reporting	HOW will the findings be communicated to the community and interested parties?

Designs are usually presented in writing, constituting a document that is shared among the members of the research team, or are thought out clearly, and retained in the researcher's mind.

2          DESIGN AND EXECUTION OF RESEARCH

The research design

Research entails two major stages: one is the stage of planning, and the other is the stage of execution. During the first stage, researchers construct a design, a plan of the research, and during the second they collect and analyze the data. The former is conducted in the research’s office, the latter in the field.

There are many forms of design. Some focus on the process of data collection only, while others extend their boundaries to cover data analysis. Most writers and researchers, however, see the research design in a wider context, covering all aspects of research from the selection of the topic to the publication of the data.

Purpose of the research design

The research design; ·         offers guide that directs the research action, and helps to rationalize the use of time and resources, and to reduce costs ·         helps to introduce a systematic approach to the research operation, thereby guaranteeing that all aspects of the study will be addressed and that they will be executed in the right sequence ·         entails (involves) openness and accountability for research purposes and for the contractors ·         helps to control, minimize or even eliminate influences on data collection and through this on the quality of data ·         offers order and clarity in the process of study ·         makes the steps of the research design clear, enabling the researchers to foresee and prevent eventual errors, bias and distortions ·         encourages the effective organization and coordination of the project, particularly when it includes more than one researcher ·         makes replication easier and more effective ·         enables accurate assessment of the validity and reliability of the study ·         enables accurate estimation of the costs of the study and the required personnel

Critics say that research design restrict freedom, flexibility and researcher initiative/creativity, and exclude from the investigation other issues and approaches that could not have been predicted at the time of construction. Despite this, research designs are an integral part of the research process. Quantitative researchers employ designs as much as qualitative researchers do.

3          RESEARCH DESIGN IN QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

Basic criteria for quantitative research design

Features of the quantitative research design A quantitative research design: ·         contains six major steps (see Box 5.4) ·         sees the steps as relatively separate and independent parts or the research ·         is constructed before the research commences ·         is presented precisely and in great detail ·         is rigid, leading no flexibility or choice for change during execution ·         is a one-way process, allowing no revisiting of steps that have already been completed ·         presumes that successful completion of a step depends on the success of previous steps ·         is based on objectivity, requiring that all decisions are made using professional standards and allowing no scope for the personal preferences or decisions of the researcher

Steps in quantitative research design

Steps in a quantitative research design
	Steps	Activities
Step 1	Topic and methodology	1. Selection of the research topic. 2. Selection of the research methodology.
Step 2	Methodological construction of the topic	1. Formal definition of the topic 2. Exploration and operationalization. 3. Formulation of hypotheses.
Step 3	Sampling procedures	1. Choice of sampling method. 2. Setting administrative parameters.
Step 4	Data collection	1. Choosing the methods of data collection. 2. Performing/organizing data collection. 3. Supervising/checking data collection.
Step 5	Data analysis and interpretation	1. Analyzing and processing the data. 2. Interpreting the findings.
Step 6	Reporting	1. Preparing a report for discussion/ publication.

Step 1            Topic and methodology

The research begins with the selection of the topic to be studied and the research methodology (qualitative or quantitative). At this stage, the researcher makes explicit what is to be studied, and what methodology will be employed.

a.    Selection of research topic: Here the topic of the study is formally stated. Any topic that is amenable (open to) to social inquiry can be chosen. For instance;

Topic: Parental divorce and children's attitude to marriage.

b.    Selection of methodology: The researcher must decide which methodology will direct the study. The choice is usually between quantitative and qualitative research. For instance;

Methodology: Quantitative methodology (resting on a positivist paradigm).

Step 2            Methodological construction of the topic

This step aims to make the research topic clear and specific and eventually to reduce it to the actual topic of analysis. In this context the topic will be defined more accurately, explored and operationalized, and hypotheses will be formulated.

a.    Formal definition of the topic: Here, the researcher will explain clearly and accurately the topic as it will be analyzed in the research. For instance;

Definition

·         Parental divorce: Legal suspension of parental marriage.

·         Attitudes to marriage: Personal stand on marriage

·         Children: Biological children aged 20-25 years of age.

Note how concepts have been specified and reduced. Divorce applies here to married couples only (not cohabiting); and the study focuses only on children between 20 and 25 years of age, and not children of all ages.

b.    Exploration: This entails a thorough study of existing information on the subject; here the researcher will specify how this will be facilitated. For instance:

Exploration: Basic information will be gathered through literature review.

c.    Oerationalization: This entails a process of converting the research topic to a form that can be measured. Operationalization is a process of translating abstract concepts into measurable indicators.

Operationalisation:

·         Parental divorce is assessed according to whether the parents of the respondent have been divorced or not.

·         Attitudes to marriage will be measured by means of two scales; one relating to whether children have positive or negative attitudes to this lifestyle and one regarding whether they intend to marry or not.

d.    Formulation of hypotheses: Here the researcher will state whether a hypothesis is required, and if so, which one. (A hypothesis is an assumption about the possible outcome of the study and provides a guideline for the research.)

Appropriate hypotheses:

·         Experience of parental divorce is associated with negative attitudes to marriage.

·         Experience of parental divorce is associated with rejection of marriage as a personal choice.

Step 3            Sampling procedures

In this part of the design, the researcher will specify where and when the study will be conducted, and who will take part in it, in other words, who will be the subjects.

Sampling: The sample will be chosen by means of probability sampling. The sample will include 300 male and 300 female children of divorced parents, taken from the records of the 15th district court covering cases of the last 12 months.

Step 4            Data collection

The researcher will specify how subjects will be approached, how data will be collected, and how data will be returned to the researcher. It will also note how research personnel and conditions will be handled so that the data will be gathered without bias and distortion.

Data collection: Data collection will proceed by means of interviews, and will be conducted by students, previously trained by their lecturer, using the resources of their institution. Standard measures of data collection will be applied.

Step 5            Data processing

The design will specify how the collected data will be analyzed and processed, including methods of analysis and processing) and the means of accessing the resources required. In our example, the researcher may decide as follows;

Data processing: Data will be grouped, and subjected to statistical analysis by means of computers in order to uncover trends regarding children's attitudes to marriage as a personal choice. Resources will be provided by the teaching institution.

Step 6            Reporting

The researcher will specify how the findings will be communicated. This refers not only to the nature of the report: but also to the channels of publication.

Reporting: An internal, self-published report will be sent to the institution that supported the project, and to the sponsor. A series of articles will be prepared for publication in professional journals.

4          RESEARCH DESIGN IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

4.1       Introduction

Qualitative researchers employ research designs as much as quantitative researchers do. They set the path of their research in their own way. All know what they intend to study, what settings to investigate, how and when, which actors to approach, which processes to consider, what types of events to register and what instruments to employ. There are at least two types of qualitative designs: the fixed and flexible designs.

4.2       Fixed qualitative designs

The fixed model of qualitative design employs a relatively structured approach, resembling the quantitative model. The steps are the same as those of quantitative research, as is the direction of the process, which is a one-way-path, from the choice of the topic to the conclusions (see Box 5.5). Two important points must be kept in mind when this research model is considered.

First, this model is employed when the researcher has a clear idea about the nature of the research topic and is interested in the way which people respond to it. Hence, methodological parameters can be specified at the outset without knowing the responses of the subjects. Second, it is employed when data analysis is conducted partly or entirely after data collection. This is, for instance, the case when data are recorded mechanically, and are analyzed after collection. The model of the quantitative design discussed above applies also to this research model.

Box 5.5

Steps in fixed qualitative design
	Steps	Activities
Step 1	Topic and methodology	1. Selection of the research topic. 2. Selection of the research methodology.
Step 2	Methodological construction of the topic	1. Framing research questions. 2. Literature review; conceptualization. 3. Strategy and rationale.
Step 3	Sampling procedures	1. Choice of setting. 2. Choice of key informants. 3. Choice of study groups and events.
Step 4	Data collection	1. Choice of methods and assistants. 2. Entering the setting and conducting research. 3. Recording and organizing data.
Step 5	Data analysis and interpretation	1. Analyzing data. 2. Assigning meanings. 3. Formulating/testing hypotheses.
Step 6	Reporting	1. Preparing a report for discussion/publication.

An example of a fixed qualitative research model is a study of the experience of women employed in traditionally male jobs, using in-depth interview with a sample of women from three selected areas of employment. The interviews, which were constructed before the beginning of the study, were conducted by three interviewers, were audio-recorded, and transcribed, and the resulting text was subsequently analyzed using content analysis.

4.3       Flexible qualitative designs

More common is the flexible model of qualitative research. The flexible qualitative design:

·         Contains six major steps (see Box 5.6)

·         Is constructed before the research commences

·         Is presented in a general and non-specific manner, allowing interpretations, leaving space for further decisions to be considered.

·         Allows freedom of unlimited movement between the steps of data collection and data analysis in both directions, using new information to fine-tune concepts, sampling and analysis. Qualitative inquiry does not employ a one-way research process.

·         Is not based on objectivity; it follows strictly professional standards; it allows for personal preferences of the researcher.

Box 5.6

Steps in flexible qualitative design
	Steps	Activities
Step 1	Topic and methodology	1. Selection of the research topic. 2. Selection of the research methodology.
Step 2	Methodological construction of the topic	1. Framing research questions. 2. Literature review; conceptualization. 3. Strategy and rationale.
Step 3	Sampling procedures	1. Choice of setting. 2. Choice of key informants. 3. Choice of study groups and events. 4. Methods of data collection and assistants.
Step 4	Data collection	1. Entering field 2. Collecting data 3. Re-defining aligning methods/sampling 4. Checking for soundness of data.
Step 5	Data analysis and interpretation	1. Analyzing data. 2. Formulating/testing hypotheses. 3. Aligning (bring into line) research process.
Step 6	Reporting	1. Preparing a report for discussion, submission and publication.

4.4       Quantitative and (flexible) qualitative designs

Procedure	Quantitative models	Qualitative flexible model
Research topic	Selection of Research Topic Selection of Methodology	Selection of Research Topic Selection of Methodology
Methodological construction of the topic	Definition: precise, accurate and specific Employs operationalization Hypotheses: formulated before the study	Definition; general, and loosely structured Employs sensitizing concepts Hypotheses: formulated through/after the study
Methods, sampling and projections	Well planned and prescriptive Sampling: well planned before data collection; is representative Measurement/scales: employs all types Arranging printing of documents Appointing assistants (if required)	Well planned but not prescriptive Sampling: well planned, often during data collection; is not representative Measurement/scales: mostly nominal Planning field visits Appointing assistants (if required)
Data collection	Uses quantitative methods Employs assistants	Uses qualitative methods Usually single-handed
Data processing	Mostly quantitative and statistical analysis Inductive generalizations	Mainly qualitative; often collection and analysis occur simultaneously Analytic generalizations
Reporting	Highly integrated findings	Mostly not integrated findings